Brief Analysis of Compounding Words in English
Robleh Wais 10/2/11
Note: the analysis below is not meant to be a formal paper on the subject. It is my reflection on a topic that oddly enough I wondered about after awakening from a dream about compound words in English.
Introduction
English has retained the Germanic linguistic construction of compounding words to create new words, though it has been retarded by the influence of Latin language importations, especially French. Germanic languages like Dutch, German, Frisian, Swedish, Icelandic, Norwegian, and others, all share the quality of being able to combine separate nouns into one word and thus create new nouns. English has since its modern period; beginning in the 17th century gradually retarded the usage of compounding. However, in recent years, this trend seems to have reversed.
Linguists refer to compound words as agglutination. I will avoid this technical term. Instead, we will use the terms compound and decompound to mean the ability of this language to combine and uncombine one or more individual words. When referring to a compound word that contains two individual words, I will call them bi-compounded words, if there are three compounded words, I will call them tri-compounded words or tri-compounds. I don't believe that compounding occurs with more than three words in any English morphemic construction, there is no need for any further coinage. An examination of compounded words in English shows that while we don't construct infinite words and can't form meaningful infinite words, we can create a huge finite set of compound words that increase the lexicon of the language with this rule of combination. Some characteristics of our language that compounding augments are variety, descriptive power, and precision of conceptualization. There are several aspects of interest in this subject. Here are a few:
1. Estimate of the total size of words in English. This does vary; I use a narrow scope and restrict it to non-scientific words, like chemical compounds based on Latin, Greek, or imports like coup d'état.
2. How many words are compounded in English?
3. Can we reverse compounded words, decompound them and will they still make sense in sentential usage?
4. What are the percentages, averages, and other statistical quantities of questions 2 and 3?
5. Is it possible to compound any given English word such that it will create a meaningful word when it is compounded with any other English word?
Question 5 is particularly intriguing. It seems we can take almost any noun at random and combine it with another and still achieve a meaningful compounded word. An example will give you a taste of what this means. Let's take a color: blue. Now we can add another noun to it to create a new word that some meaning can be attributed to. It might be coined meaning, but still, it is easy to see that each of the words below can have some meaning assigned to them. It could be idiomatic or literal, but all have semantic content.
Bluewall, bluefloor, bluenight, blueday, bluearm, blueeye, bluehead, bluemind, bluesight, bluesun,blueboard, blueseat, blueback, bluetime, blueglass, blueworld, blueland, bluedoor, bluetalk. All of these words could be seen to have meaning.The only exclusion to compounding blue with others words would seem to be the other must be a noun. Though, even this isn't entirely true. I can imagine bluethinking as having some subjective meaning.
English and Compounding
I have found a total of 2276 compounded words in English via a Net search. They all are bi-compounded words. Of these, I have selected 190 to analyze. Interesting results were achieved for the idea of creating new words by using compounding. If we reverse these bi-compounds and use them in sentences a great many will be semantically meaningful. In some cases, the reversals can be compounded themselves and yield meaningful statements in our language. Here are some stats I've developed based on a survey of 190 compounded words out of the total 2276 compounded English words.
13% of the time bi-compounded words can be reversed and compounded again to yield meaningful words.
40% of the time bi-compounded words cannot be reversed and yield any meaningful construction.
42% of the time bi-compounded words can be reversed and do yield meaningful constructions if not compounded again.
4% of the time bi-compounded words when reversed yield indeterminate constructions.
The number of compounded words is very small compared to the total number of English words (taking 500,000 to be this number. They are .004% of the lexicon.
It should be noted that a very strict regime was used when bi-compounded words were reversed. No insertions of characters or other words between the reversed de-compounded words were allowed. For instance, greenhouse when reversed is house green. A sentence could be formed as such: The greenhouse was a house of green. But this would have required of to be inserted.
Source Data
Below is a table of all 190 compounds reversed, and examples of reverse usage where this can be done.
First |
Second |
Example |
port |
air |
the port air at the airport smelled of salt |
more |
any |
|
place |
any |
place any of them anyplace you want |
thing |
any |
|
where |
any |
where any of you go beware of me anywhere |
chair |
arm |
he leaned on the chair arm of the armchair |
ache |
back |
|
ground |
back |
in the background of his thought he wondered how could he win ground back from the enemy |
pack |
back |
in his backpack he had a plan to get his loyal pack back |
ball |
basket |
the basketball player drug along a large ball basket |
robe |
bath |
|
tub |
bath |
|
ship |
battle |
the battleship was soon engaged in a deadly ship battle |
room |
bed |
the bedroom had only one room bed and two chairs |
line |
bee |
|
day |
birth |
she remembered on her birthday that the doctors said day birth was more difficult than night birth |
board |
black |
the painters applied a paste to make the blackboard, board black |
case |
book |
the lawyer walked up to the bookcase and took down the casebook |
let |
book |
|
shelf |
book |
a shelfbook is what a bookshelf contains |
worm |
book |
like shelfbook below |
case |
brief |
the military officer held in his briefcase, the entire case brief |
cup |
butter |
like shelfbook below |
fly |
butter |
we fly butter in planes like a butterfly |
fire |
camp |
they lit campfires throughout the training fire camp |
ground |
camp |
|
stick |
candle |
a candlestick is not the same as stick candle, which is a stick made into a candle |
board |
card |
his cardboard, board card allowed him unimpeded access to all areas of the train |
pet |
car |
Proudly the motorist drove his pet car onto the winning carpet |
stick |
chop |
|
mate |
class |
Even though the 10 year old boy was her classmate, she felt at 25 years old, he was not in her mate class |
wise |
clock |
|
yard |
court |
From the courtyard, he convened a strange yard court to assemble |
boy |
cow |
the cowboy struggled to rope a boy cow |
board |
cup |
|
let |
cut |
|
devil |
dare |
|
devils |
dare |
the daredevils reminded me, that devils dare |
dream |
day |
it was mesmering, this dreamday to come true in her daydream |
washer |
dish |
|
water |
dish |
dishwater is not the same as a waterdish, which a dish containing water |
bell |
door |
a doorbell is a ringing device, while a bell door is a door of bells |
mat |
door |
same as above |
step |
door |
same as above |
stop |
door |
same as above |
way |
door |
same as above |
fly |
dragon |
the scientist said to the dragonfly, fly dragon! |
let |
drop |
she felt a wet droplet in her eye, which soon she let drop |
ache |
ear |
|
ring |
ear |
|
green |
ever |
|
body |
every |
|
day |
every |
|
ball |
eye |
|
print |
finger |
his printfinger was a measurement quantity not his fingerprint |
arm |
fire |
|
fighter |
fire |
the firefighter jumped in the conflagration with fighter fire in his heart |
place |
fire |
place fire in the fireplace |
proof |
fire |
|
works |
fire |
|
tail |
fish |
look at the fishtail of the tailfish |
ball |
foot |
the kicker knew after his first attempt the footbal had injured his ball foot |
print |
foot |
|
cast |
fore |
|
see |
fore |
|
get |
for |
don't forget to get for me a pack of cigarettes |
give |
for |
the compassionate believers give for all, and forgive all |
fold |
four |
fold four linens and their power will be increased fourfold |
ship |
friend |
She was my ship friend at sea, and it soon became true friendship on land |
man |
gentle |
|
fish |
gold |
fish gold from the bottom of the goldfish tank |
father |
grand |
father grand descendants grandfather |
mother |
grand |
|
stand |
grand |
|
hopper |
grass |
|
yard |
grave |
|
house |
green |
|
nut |
ground |
|
storm |
hail |
A hailstorm will storm hail from the heavens |
way |
hall |
|
cuff |
hand |
he had the handcuff in his cuff hand |
ache |
head |
He coined the term achehead to describe any one that consistently gave him a headache |
light |
head |
like above |
master |
head |
like above |
mistress |
head |
like above |
beat |
heart |
|
broken |
heart |
he took his heartbroken face away from her, but she was also a broken heart, and this he did not know |
way |
high |
|
work |
home |
The parent tried to work home the idea that homework was important to her son |
comb |
honey |
to comb honey in a honeycomb is impossible |
worm |
hook |
|
fly |
horse |
|
boat |
house |
houseboat is the same as a boathouse |
side |
in |
inside means to be within a structure, while side in means to keep the sides of a structure shut |
bone |
jaw |
|
bug |
lady |
Since you loved the ladybug in her greenhouse, she was called the buglady |
lady |
land |
|
lord |
land |
|
ship |
leader |
the ship leader must show leadership |
let |
leaf |
|
wise |
length |
|
house |
light |
the lighthouse had one one houselight in the observation area |
speaker |
loud |
|
piece |
master |
|
stick |
match |
|
ball |
meat |
A meatball is made when you ball meat into a circular shape |
light |
moon |
Is a light moon the source of this moonlight? |
self |
my |
|
tie |
neck |
|
paper |
news |
|
body |
no |
|
hand |
off |
Don't hand off this to me in an offhand way |
line |
on |
I don't mean online, I mean is the line on |
wise |
other |
|
door |
out |
|
field |
out |
|
fit |
out |
|
grow |
out |
some plants in there outgrowth have a directional process in which they grow out and then down back into the soil |
law |
out |
|
let |
out |
I need an outlet to let out my feelings |
number |
out |
|
patient |
out |
|
side |
out |
Outside does not refer to sideout, which is a technical term |
board |
over |
|
dose |
over |
|
due |
over |
|
cake |
pan |
A pancake can be made in a cakepan |
ship |
partner |
My partnership began while on a boat, he was my ship partner |
knife |
pen |
|
copy |
photo |
A photocopy is not a photo copy |
ground |
play |
|
room |
play |
|
corn |
pop |
|
man |
post |
A postman delivers mail, while a manpost is where a man is standing at his assumed position |
way |
rail |
|
bow |
rain |
|
drops |
rain |
So many raindrops, but do the drops rain upon us all? |
snake |
rattle |
the rattlesnake was startled by snakerattle a few feet from it |
worm |
ring |
ringworm is a disease, while a wormring is a collection of worms in a ring |
bags |
sand |
sandbags, so many of them, and he bags sand all day |
castle |
sand |
the sandcastle was supported by castle sand, which surrounded the structure |
paper |
sand |
Sandpaper is not paper sand |
food |
sea |
|
shore |
sea |
|
weed |
sea |
|
wreck |
ship |
shipwreck is what the wreckship does find |
string |
shoe |
a shoestring was what the stringshoe was entirely made of |
bread |
short |
|
board |
skate |
a skateboard is not board skate, that is a skate on top of a board |
scraper |
sky |
|
board |
snow |
same as below |
storm |
snow |
the snowstorm dumped a huge amount of storm snow on the hillside |
thing |
some |
|
proof |
sound |
|
ship |
space |
Please don't get in the ship space of the spaceship |
case |
stair |
|
light |
star |
like moonlight above |
ache |
stomach |
|
berry |
straw |
|
light |
sun |
like moonlight above |
shine |
sun |
I say shine sun gives us your sunshine |
human |
super |
|
impose |
super |
to impose super human qualities is not to superimpose |
natural |
super |
same as above |
board |
surf |
|
gate |
tail |
a tailgate is not a gatetail, that is the end of any gate's structure |
cup |
tea |
|
pot |
tea |
|
storm |
thunder |
she was afraid during a thunderstorm of the storm thunder that roared around her home |
rope |
tight |
this tightrope is a rope tight for sure |
table |
time |
to table time is impossible while a timetable is a chart |
stone |
tomb |
the tombstone was affixed above the stone tomb |
box |
tool |
a box tool was retrieved from the toolbox |
brush |
tooth |
|
stand |
under |
you understand to stand under a 50 ton object is to risk your life |
paper |
wall |
the wallpaper on the paperwall was cracked |
robe |
ward |
|
ship |
war |
the warship in engaged in a deadly ship war |
melon |
water |
I say melonwater is that which flows from a watermelon |
proof |
water |
|
end |
week |
this weekend will be the end week as last weekend was the begin week of the program |
barrow |
wheel |
the worker gripped the barrow wheel of the wheelbarrow |
chair |
wheel |
the wheelchair patient revovled wildly spinning the chair wheel on the ice with his hand |
cutter |
wood |
|
land |
wood |
|
pile |
wood |
the gang of prisoners were told to pile wood on the woodpile |
shed |
wood |
he felt as if he had shed wood from his beard in the woodshed |
work |
wood |
he wanted to work wood, to show off his woodwork |
worm |
wood |
|
self |
your |
Below the same data without examples and a tabulation of counts of word quantities
First |
Second |
Reversible |
CountFirst |
CountSecond |
CountNo |
CountYes |
CountReversible |
CountEnglishTotal |
|
airport |
port |
air |
yes |
||||||
anymore |
more |
any |
no |
||||||
anyplace |
place |
any |
yes |
||||||
anything |
thing |
any |
no |
||||||
anywhere |
where |
any |
yes |
||||||
armchair |
chair |
arm |
yes |
||||||
backache |
ache |
back |
no |
||||||
background |
ground |
back |
yes |
||||||
backpack |
pack |
back |
yes |
||||||
basketball |
ball |
basket |
yes |
||||||
bathrobe |
robe |
bath |
no |
||||||
bathtub |
tub |
bath |
no |
||||||
battleship |
ship |
battle |
yes |
||||||
bedroom |
room |
bed |
yes |
||||||
beeline |
line |
bee |
no |
||||||
birthday |
day |
birth |
yes |
||||||
blackboard |
board |
black |
yes |
||||||
bookcase |
case |
book |
yes1 |
||||||
booklet |
let |
book |
no |
||||||
bookshelf |
shelf |
book |
yes1 |
||||||
bookworm |
worm |
book |
yes1 |
||||||
briefcase |
case |
brief |
yes |
||||||
buttercup |
cup |
butter |
yes1 |
||||||
butterfly |
fly |
butter |
yes |
||||||
campfire |
fire |
camp |
yes |
||||||
campground |
ground |
camp |
no |
||||||
candlestick |
stick |
candle |
yes |
||||||
cardboard |
board |
card |
yes |
||||||
carpet |
pet |
car |
yes |
||||||
chopstick |
stick |
chop |
no |
||||||
classmate |
mate |
class |
yes |
||||||
clockwise |
wise |
clock |
no |
||||||
courtyard |
yard |
court |
yes |
||||||
cowboy |
boy |
cow |
yes |
||||||
cupboard |
board |
cup |
no |
||||||
cutlet |
let |
cut |
no |
||||||
daredevil |
devil |
dare |
no |
||||||
daredevils |
devils |
dare |
yes |
||||||
daydream |
dream |
day |
yes1 |
||||||
dishwasher |
washer |
dish |
no |
||||||
dishwater |
water |
dish |
yes1 |
||||||
doorbell |
bell |
door |
yes |
||||||
doormat |
mat |
door |
yes |
||||||
doorstep |
step |
door |
yes |
||||||
doorstop |
stop |
door |
yes |
||||||
doorway |
way |
door |
yes |
||||||
dragonfly |
fly |
dragon |
yes |
||||||
droplet |
let |
drop |
yes |
||||||
earache |
ache |
ear |
no |
||||||
earring |
ring |
ear |
no |
||||||
evergreen |
green |
ever |
no |
||||||
everybody |
body |
every |
no |
||||||
everyday |
day |
every |
no |
||||||
eyeball |
ball |
eye |
no |
||||||
fingerprint |
print |
finger |
yes1 |
||||||
firearm |
arm |
fire |
no |
||||||
firefighter |
fighter |
fire |
yes |
||||||
fireplace |
place |
fire |
yes |
||||||
fireproof |
proof |
fire |
no |
||||||
fireworks |
works |
fire |
no |
||||||
fishtail |
tail |
fish |
yes1 |
||||||
football |
ball |
foot |
yes |
||||||
footprint |
print |
foot |
yes |
||||||
forecast |
cast |
fore |
no |
||||||
foresee |
see |
fore |
no |
||||||
forget |
get |
for |
yes |
||||||
forgive |
give |
for |
yes |
||||||
fourfold |
fold |
four |
yes |
||||||
friendship |
ship |
friend |
yes |
||||||
gentleman |
man |
gentle |
no |
||||||
goldfish |
fish |
gold |
yes |
||||||
grandfather |
father |
grand |
yes |
||||||
grandmother |
mother |
grand |
no |
||||||
grandstand |
stand |
grand |
no |
||||||
grasshopper |
hopper |
grass |
no |
||||||
graveyard |
yard |
grave |
no |
||||||
greenhouse |
house |
green |
no |
||||||
groundnut |
nut |
ground |
no |
||||||
hailstorm |
storm |
hail |
yes |
||||||
hallway |
way |
hall |
indeterminate |
||||||
handcuff |
cuff |
hand |
yes |
||||||
headache |
ache |
head |
yes1 |
||||||
headlight |
light |
head |
yes1 |
||||||
headmaster |
master |
head |
yes1 |
||||||
headmistress |
mistress |
head |
yes1 |
||||||
heartbeat |
beat |
heart |
indeterminate |
||||||
heartbroken |
broken |
heart |
yes |
||||||
highway |
way |
high |
indeterminate |
||||||
homework |
work |
home |
yes |
||||||
honeycomb |
comb |
honey |
yes |
||||||
hookworm |
worm |
hook |
indeterminate |
||||||
horsefly |
fly |
horse |
no |
||||||
houseboat |
boat |
house |
yes1 |
||||||
inside |
side |
in |
yes |
||||||
jawbone |
bone |
jaw |
no |
||||||
ladybug |
bug |
lady |
yes |
||||||
landlady |
lady |
land |
no |
||||||
landlord |
lord |
land |
no |
||||||
leadership |
ship |
leader |
yes |
||||||
leaflet |
let |
leaf |
no |
||||||
lengthwise |
wise |
length |
no |
||||||
lighthouse |
house |
light |
yes1 |
||||||
loudspeaker |
speaker |
loud |
no |
||||||
masterpiece |
piece |
master |
no |
||||||
matchstick |
stick |
match |
no |
||||||
meatball |
ball |
meat |
yes |
||||||
moonlight |
light |
moon |
yes |
||||||
myself |
self |
my |
no |
||||||
necktie |
tie |
neck |
no |
||||||
newspaper |
paper |
news |
no |
||||||
nobody |
body |
no |
no |
||||||
offhand |
hand |
off |
yes |
||||||
online |
line |
on |
yes |
||||||
otherwise |
wise |
otherwise |
no |
||||||
outdoor |
door |
out |
no |
||||||
outfield |
field |
out |
no |
||||||
outfit |
fit |
out |
no |
||||||
outgrow |
grow |
out |
yes |
||||||
outlaw |
law |
out |
no |
||||||
outlet |
let |
out |
yes |
||||||
outnumber |
number |
out |
no |
||||||
outpatient |
patient |
out |
no |
||||||
outside |
side |
out |
yes1 |
||||||
overboard |
board |
over |
no |
||||||
overdose |
dose |
over |
no |
||||||
overdue |
due |
over |
no |
||||||
pancake |
cake |
pan |
yes1 |
||||||
partnership |
ship |
partner |
yes |
||||||
penknife |
knife |
pen |
no |
||||||
photocopy |
copy |
photo |
yes |
||||||
playground |
ground |
play |
no |
||||||
playroom |
room |
play |
no |
||||||
popcorn |
corn |
pop |
no |
||||||
postman |
man |
post |
yes1 |
||||||
railway |
way |
rail |
no |
||||||
rainbow |
bow |
rain |
no |
||||||
raindrops |
drops |
rain |
yes |
||||||
rattlesnake |
snake |
rattle |
yes1 |
||||||
ringworm |
worm |
ring |
yes1 |
||||||
sandbags |
bags |
sand |
yes |
||||||
sandcastle |
castle |
sand |
yes |
||||||
sandpaper |
paper |
sand |
yes |
||||||
seafood |
food |
sea |
no |
||||||
seashore |
shore |
sea |
no |
||||||
seaweed |
weed |
sea |
no |
||||||
shipwreck |
wreck |
ship |
yes1 |
||||||
shoestring |
string |
shoe |
yes1 |
||||||
shortbread |
bread |
short |
no |
||||||
skateboard |
board |
skate |
yes |
||||||
skyscraper |
scraper |
sky |
no |
||||||
snowboard |
board |
snow |
yes |
||||||
snowstorm |
storm |
snow |
yes |
||||||
something |
thing |
some |
no |
||||||
soundproof |
proof |
sound |
no |
||||||
spaceship |
ship |
space |
yes |
||||||
staircase |
case |
stair |
no |
||||||
starlight |
light |
star |
yes |
||||||
stomachache |
ache |
stomach |
no |
||||||
strawberry |
berry |
straw |
no |
||||||
sunlight |
light |
sun |
yes |
||||||
sunshine |
shine |
sun |
yes |
||||||
superhuman |
human |
super |
no |
||||||
superimpose |
impose |
super |
yes |
||||||
supernatural |
natural |
super |
yes |
||||||
surfboard |
board |
surf |
no |
||||||
tailgate |
gate |
tail |
yes1 |
||||||
teacup |
cup |
tea |
no |
||||||
teapot |
pot |
tea |
no |
||||||
thunderstorm |
storm |
thunder |
yes |
||||||
tightrope |
rope |
tight |
yes |
||||||
timetable |
table |
time |
yes |
||||||
tombstone |
stone |
tomb |
yes |
||||||
toolbox |
box |
tool |
yes |
||||||
toothbrush |
brush |
tooth |
indeterminate |
||||||
understand |
stand |
under |
yes |
||||||
wallpaper |
paper |
wall |
yes1 |
||||||
wardrobe |
robe |
ward |
no |
||||||
warship |
ship |
war |
yes |
||||||
watermelon |
melon |
water |
yes1 |
||||||
waterproof |
proof |
water |
indeterminate |
||||||
weekend |
end |
week |
yes |
||||||
wheelbarrow |
barrow |
wheel |
yes |
||||||
wheelchair |
chair |
wheel |
yes |
||||||
woodcutter |
cutter |
wood |
indeterminate |
||||||
woodland |
land |
wood |
indeterminate |
||||||
woodpile |
pile |
wood |
yes |
||||||
woodshed |
shed |
wood |
yes |
||||||
woodwork |
work |
wood |
yes |
||||||
woodworm |
worm |
wood |
yes |
||||||
yourself |
self |
your |
no |
||||||
TOTALS |
190 |
190 |
76 |
80 |
24 |
500,000 (estimated) |